Those Who or Those Whom in English: The core difference

Grammar rules create precision in communication. Yet certain constructions persistently challenge even proficient English speakers. The distinction between "those who" and "those whom" represents one such grammatical nuance that demands attention—not merely for correctness, but for communicative clarity.

This distinction matters because it affects how we structure sentences, convey meaning, and demonstrate linguistic competence. When we misuse these pronouns, we risk undermining our credibility and obfuscating our message.

Understanding relative pronouns like "who" and "whom" provides a foundation for sophisticated English expression. This guide unpacks the rules governing these constructions, clarifies their applications, and offers practical strategies for mastering their usage.

The core difference between "who" and "whom"

The essential distinction between "who" and "whom" lies in their grammatical function within sentences. This difference originates from English's case system—a feature inherited from its Germanic roots.

Subject versus object function

"Who" functions as a subject pronoun—it performs the action in a sentence or clause. For example:

Those who arrive early will receive priority seating.

In this sentence, "who" serves as the subject of the relative clause "who arrive early." The people (those) are performing the action of arriving.

"Whom," by contrast, acts as an object pronoun—it receives the action within a sentence or clause:

Those whom the committee selected will advance to the final round.

Here, "whom" functions as the object of the relative clause. The committee performed the action (selected) upon these people (those whom).

Historical context

This distinction emerges from Old English's more complex case system, which has gradually simplified over centuries. Modern English retains this subject-object distinction primarily in pronouns, while many other languages maintain more extensive case systems.

Understanding this historical context helps explain why these distinctions persist despite the general trend toward grammatical simplification in English.

When to use "those who"

"Those who" applies when referring to people who function as the subject in the relative clause—that is, when they actively perform the action described.

Subject role examples

Those who studied diligently passed the examination.

The people (those) are performing the action of studying.

The company rewards those who consistently exceed performance targets.

Here, "those" refers to people who are performing the action of exceeding targets.

Common sentence structures with "those who"

Several standard constructions commonly incorporate "those who":

1. "Those who" + verb phrase Those who hesitate often miss crucial opportunities.

2. "Those who" in conditional statements Those who would succeed must first overcome failure.

3. "Those who" with adverbial modifiers Those who truly understand the concept can explain it simply.

The key principle: When the people referenced by "those" perform the action in the relative clause, "who" is the appropriate choice.

When to use "those whom"

"Those whom" applies when referring to people who function as the object in the relative clause—when they receive the action described.

Object role examples

Those whom I invited could not attend the conference.

Here, "those" receives the action of being invited.

The scholarship benefits those whom the selection committee identifies as exceptional candidates.

The selection committee performs the action upon "those."

Common sentence structures with "those whom"

1. "Those whom" + subject + verb Those whom the critics praised received greater public attention.

2. "Those whom" as the object of a preposition The message was intended for those whom the change would most affect.

3. "Those whom" in passive constructions Those whom were selected for the program received additional training. (Note: This is actually incorrect and should be "Those who were selected..." as the passive construction changes the function to a subject.)

The fundamental principle: When the people referenced by "those" receive the action in the relative clause, "whom" is appropriate.

The subject-object test for determining correct usage

A reliable method for selecting between "who" and "whom" involves analyzing the grammatical structure of the relative clause.

How to apply the replacement test

Replace the questionable pronoun with "he/she/they" or "him/her/them" and see which makes grammatical sense:

For "who": If you can replace the pronoun with "he," "she," or "they" (subject pronouns), use "who."

Those who [they] arrived on time received the full presentation.

For "whom": If you can replace the pronoun with "him," "her," or "them" (object pronouns), use "whom."

Those whom [them] we nominated received certificates of recognition.

Complex sentence analysis

In more complicated sentences, identify the verb in the relative clause and determine whether "those" performs or receives that action:

Those who believe in the project's potential continue to invest despite setbacks.

The relative clause verb is "believe"
"Those" are performing the believing, so "who" is correct

Those whom investors trusted with their capital showed remarkable returns.

The relative clause verb is "trusted"
Investors are doing the trusting of "those," making "those" the object, so "whom" is correct

Common errors and misconceptions

Many writers incorrectly use "who" in all contexts out of unfamiliarity with the distinction. Others overcorrect by using "whom" in subject positions to sound formal. Both approaches miss the grammatical purpose these distinctions serve.

A notable misconception is that "whom" always follows prepositions. While often true, this isn't universal. The determining factor remains whether the pronoun functions as a subject or object in the relative clause.

"Those who" and "those whom" with prepositions

Prepositions create particular challenges when determining whether to use "who" or "whom."

Prepositions at the end of sentences

When a sentence ends with a preposition, the object of that preposition might not be immediately obvious:

Those who we delegate responsibilities to must demonstrate reliability.

This sentence could be restructured as: Those to whom we delegate responsibilities must demonstrate reliability.

In both versions, "those" receives the action of delegation, making "whom" technically correct. However, contemporary English increasingly accepts "who" in such constructions, especially in less formal contexts.

Formal versus informal usage

Formal writing generally observes the distinction between "who" and "whom" more strictly, particularly in academic, legal, and professional documents.

Informal communication often relaxes this distinction, with "who" frequently replacing "whom" in object positions, especially in spoken English and casual written communication.

Consider the formality of your context when deciding how strictly to apply the rules.

Evolving usage in contemporary English

English grammar continues to evolve, and the distinction between "who" and "whom" exemplifies this evolution.

Trends in modern English

Linguistic data shows decreasing use of "whom" across various contexts. According to corpus linguistics research, "whom" usage has declined approximately 80% over the past century in written English, with an even steeper decline in spoken forms.

This trend reflects broader patterns of case simplification in English, where subject-object distinctions gradually erode over time.

Formal writing expectations versus conversational norms

Despite these trends, formal contexts still largely maintain the who/whom distinction:

Academic journals, legal documents, and formal business communications tend to preserve traditional usage.
Conversational English, social media, and informal writing increasingly favor "who" in most contexts.
Style guides for various publications differ in their approaches, with some maintaining strict differentiation and others acknowledging evolving standards.

Prescriptive versus descriptive approaches

This evolution highlights the tension between prescriptive grammar (rules dictating how language should be used) and descriptive grammar (documentation of how language is actually used).

While prescriptive guidelines continue to distinguish between "who" and "whom" based on their grammatical functions, descriptive analysis increasingly recognizes "who" as an acceptable alternative in many traditionally "whom" contexts, particularly in casual communication.

Regional and dialectal variations

The use of "who" and "whom" varies not only across time but also across different English-speaking regions and dialectal traditions.

American versus British English differences

While both American and British English maintain the formal distinction between "who" and "whom," British English tends to preserve "whom" usage somewhat more consistently, particularly in formal writing and speech.

American English has generally moved faster toward simplification, with "whom" often perceived as excessively formal or stilted outside specific professional contexts.

Dialectal preferences

Various English dialects handle this distinction differently:

Some dialects preserve older forms and maintain the distinction consistently.
Others have largely abandoned "whom" except in fixed expressions.
Certain regional varieties have developed alternative constructions that avoid the choice entirely.

These variations highlight English's dynamic nature as a global language adapting to diverse communicative needs.

Common fixed expressions and idiomatic usage

Despite changing general usage patterns, certain fixed expressions and idiomatic constructions consistently maintain traditional forms.

Standard expressions that preserve traditional usage

Several common phrases preserve traditional "whom" usage even as general application declines:

"To whom it may concern"
"For whom the bell tolls"
"Whom do you trust?"
"With whom did you speak?"

These expressions persist partly through familiarity and partly because the prepositions make the object function more evident.

Idiomatic constructions

Some idiomatic constructions have standardized one form:

"Who's who" (not "whom's whom")
"Who are you talking to?" (increasingly accepted over "To whom are you talking?")
"Those who know, know" (not "Those whom know, know")

These constructions demonstrate how usage conventions sometimes override strict grammatical analysis.

Practical strategies for mastering usage

Developing reliable instincts for "who" versus "whom" requires practice and awareness.

Mental tests for quick decisions

Beyond the subject/object replacement test mentioned earlier, consider these additional strategies:

1. Rephrase the sentence to clarify the relationship If uncertain, restructure the sentence to make the grammatical relationship more obvious.

Original: Those who/whom the message reached responded immediately. Rephrased: The message reached those people, and they responded immediately. Since "those people" receives the action of reaching, "whom" is correct.

2. Listen for natural speech patterns Sometimes our ear for natural language can guide correct usage. Read sentences aloud and notice which version sounds more natural, particularly in formal contexts.

Common contexts and memory aids

To develop reliable instincts, focus on mastering usage in frequently encountered contexts:

1. Questions

"Who is coming?" (subject)
"Whom did you invite?" (object)

2. Relative clauses

"Those who arrived" (subject)
"Those whom we selected" (object)

3. Preposition phrases

"Those to whom we spoke" (object of preposition)

A useful memory aid: Who = He/She/They (subject forms all lack the letter 'M') Whom = Him/Her/Them (object forms contain 'M')

Troubleshooting difficult constructions

Some sentence structures present particular challenges when determining whether to use "who" or "whom."

Interrupting phrases

When phrases interrupt the connection between the pronoun and its related verb, identifying the correct form becomes more challenging:

Those who, despite significant obstacles, persevered ultimately succeeded.

In such cases, mentally remove the interrupting phrase to clarify the relationship: Those who persevered ultimately succeeded.

This reveals "who" as the correct choice because "those" performs the action of persevering.

Double embedded clauses

Sentences with multiple embedded clauses require careful analysis:

Those whom the committee, which the board appointed last month, selected will represent our organization.

Break this into component parts:

The board appointed the committee last month.
The committee selected those people.
Those people will represent our organization.

Since "those" receives the action of selection, "whom" is correct.

Passive voice complications

Passive voice constructions can obscure the subject-object relationship:

Those who were selected by the committee received notification.

Despite involving selection by the committee, "who" is correct because the passive voice makes "those" the grammatical subject of "were selected."

"That" as an alternative in certain contexts

In some cases, "that" offers an alternative to both "who" and "whom," though its usage differs in important ways.

When "that" can replace "who" or "whom"

"That" can sometimes function as a relative pronoun referring to people:

Those that arrived early found seats near the stage.

However, contemporary style guides generally prefer "who" when referring to people, reserving "that" primarily for things or collectives.

Stylistic considerations

Using "that" instead of "who" or "whom" to refer to people often creates a depersonalizing effect, potentially appropriate when:

Referring to people as abstract categories
Discussing people as examples of types rather than as individuals
Creating deliberate distance or objectification for stylistic purposes

Most contemporary writing favors using "who" and "whom" for people and "that" for objects or concepts.

Impact on writing quality and professionalism

Mastering the distinction between "who" and "whom" contributes significantly to writing quality and perceived professionalism.

Reader perception and credibility

Research in communication psychology indicates that grammatical precision influences how readers perceive a writer's:

Educational background
Attention to detail
Professional competence
Overall credibility

While minor grammatical issues rarely undermine strong content entirely, persistent errors can diminish a writer's perceived authority, particularly in professional contexts.

Balance between correctness and natural flow

Effective writing balances grammatical precision with natural expression. Occasionally, strict adherence to formal rules can create awkward constructions that impede communication more than they enhance it.

Consider your audience and context when deciding how strictly to apply formal distinctions, particularly in constructions where contemporary usage varies.

Exercises for practice

Developing reliable instincts requires practice with varied sentence structures.

Sentence completion exercises

Complete each sentence with "who" or "whom" as appropriate:

Those ______ attended the seminar received completion certificates.
The announcement was directed to those ______ the policy change would affect.
The company contacted those ______ had previously expressed interest in the product.
Those ______ we invited to the preview session provided valuable feedback.
The scholarship is available to those ______ demonstrate financial need and academic excellence.

Error correction practice

Identify and correct any errors in the following sentences:

Those whom participate will receive participation points.
The message was sent to those who the update would impact immediately.
Those who the committee selected were notified promptly.
The resources are available to those whom need additional support.
The company recognized those whom had exceeded performance targets.

Answers and explanations

Sentence completion:

who (subject of "attended")
whom (object of "would affect")
who (subject of "had expressed")
whom (object of "invited")
who (subject of "demonstrate")

Error correction:

Those who participate... ("Those" are performing the action of participating)
The message was sent to those whom the update would impact... ("Those" receives the action of impacting)
Correct as written.
The resources are available to those who need... ("Those" perform the action of needing)
The company recognized those who had exceeded... ("Those" perform the action of exceeding)

Application in professional communication

Understanding the distinction between "who" and "whom" becomes particularly valuable in professional contexts.

Business writing considerations

In business communications, precise grammar often correlates with perceived professionalism and attention to detail:

Formal business correspondence generally observes traditional distinctions more strictly.
Client-facing documents typically maintain formal grammatical standards.
Internal communications may adopt more relaxed conventions depending on organizational culture.

Many companies include grammar standards in their style guides, often specifying contexts where traditional distinctions should be maintained.

Academic writing standards

Academic writing typically adheres to traditional grammatical standards, with style guides like APA, MLA, and Chicago maintaining the who/whom distinction.

Research suggests that grammatical precision in academic writing correlates with higher assessment scores and perceived credibility, regardless of content quality.

Resources for further learning

Developing mastery requires access to quality reference materials and practice opportunities.

Recommended references

Several authoritative resources provide detailed guidance on relative pronoun usage:

The Chicago Manual of Style offers comprehensive guidance on formal usage.
Garner's Modern English Usage provides nuanced discussion of evolving standards.
The Elements of Style by Strunk and White presents concise traditional rules.
Grammar Girl's Quick and Dirty Tips offers accessible explanations with contemporary examples.

Online tools and grammar checkers

Digital tools can help identify potential errors:

Premium grammar checkers like Grammarly and ProWritingAid typically flag potential who/whom errors.
Microsoft Word's grammar checker identifies basic errors but may miss nuanced distinctions.
The Hemingway Editor highlights complex sentences where restructuring might eliminate problematic constructions.

However, these tools should supplement rather than replace understanding of the underlying principles.

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